Electric Vehicle’s Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Life Cycle Emission (LCE) and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of Various Electric Vehicles
Keywords:
Life cycle electric vehicles; Life cycle assessment; life cycle emission; life cycle cost; Electric vehicle EV; Electric vehicle vs internal combustion engine.Abstract
The rapid global shift toward sustainable transportation has driven many countries to explore cleaner technologies. As concerns regarding climate change intensify, researchers are increasingly focusing on technologies that can significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The transportation sector is a significant contributor to GHG emissions. High GHG emissions from transportation can be reduced using low-carbon fuels and electric vehicles (EVs). Among the various mitigation strategies, the advancement of EV technology has received considerable attention. EVs use an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine to power vehicles. Life cycle assessment (LCA) measures a product’s environmental effects from production to disposal. Several types of EVs were developed and introduced to lower GHG emissions. An evaluation of the environmental and economic value of each EV is thus required. This study investigates the LCA of several EVs. A case study in Malaysia is selected. The type of EVs includes hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV). The life cycle emission (LCE) and life cycle cost (LCC) are compared for each EV and internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV). The developed LCC framework comprises societal life cycle cost (SLCC) and consumer life cycle cost (CLCC). SLCC includes social impact, including EV first cost, lifetime operation, and external cost (emission cost). CLCC includes EV retail cost, lifetime operation cost, time loss and disposal cost. The simulation uses GREET Software to obtain GHG emissions and air pollutant intensities. The total LCC is calculated over an EV lifetime of 12 years. The study found that ICEV have the highest LCE, producing 417.52 g/mile, while FCEVs have the lowest emissions at 254.4 g/mile. However, the FCEV has the highest LCC with 1.08 $/mile. HEV is found to be the most viable option to reduce emission production with a LCC of 0.59 $/mile. The findings highlight that selecting the most sustainable vehicle technology requires balancing environmental performance with economic feasibility. While certain EV types deliver substantial emission reductions, their costs may still pose barriers to widespread adoption. The results provide valuable insight for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and consumers toward cleaner transportation strategies in the future.
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